Chapter 4. Classification of English consonants.

The quality of a consonant depends on the work of the vocal cords, the position of the soft palate and the kind of noise that results when the tongue or lips obstruct the air-passage. There are two types of articulatory obstruction: complete and incomplete.
Consonants are divided according to:

1. the active speech organs and place of obstruction (в зависимости от работы активных органов речи и от места преграды): labial, lingual and glottal (губные, язычные и гортанный)
2.  the type of obstruction (от типа преграды) and the manner of production of noise(от способа  образования шума): occlusive and constrictive (смычный и щелевой)
3. the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation
4. the position of the soft palate.

1.1. According to the active organ of speech EC are divided into labial, lingual and glottal.

1. Labial may be: bilabial, labio-dental.

a) bilabial consonants are articulated by the two lips:[p], [b], [m], [w]
b) labio-dental is articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth: [f], [v].
2. Lingual may be: forelingual, mediolingual, backlingual.
A) forelingual are articulated by the blade of the tongue; the blade with the tip against the upper teeth or alveolar ridge.
According to the position of the tip English forelingual consonants may be:
a- apical        b- cacuminal
a apical consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge: [θ], [ð], [t], [d], [l], [n], [s], [z]
b cacuminal consonants are articulated with the tongue tip raised against the back part of the alveolar ridge: [r].
B) mediolingual consonants are articulated with the front of the tongue against the hard palate: [j]
C) backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate: [k], [g], [η].
3. Glottal are produced in the glottis: [h].
According to the articulation forelingual consonants are divided into

• dental consonants are articulated against the upper teeth with the tip: [θ], [ð]
• alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge: the English [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z]
• palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge or the part of the alveolar ridge, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate: [∫], [ʒ], [t∫], [dʒ]
• post-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of tongue against the back part of the alveolar ridge: [r].

2.1 According to the type of obstruction EC are divided into: occlusive and constrictive.
A) Occlusive consonants are produced with a complete obstruction formed by the articulating organs; the air-passage in the mouth cavity is blocked.
Occlusive consonants may be:

• noise (шумные)
• sonorants (nasal) (сонатные – звучные)

Noise occlusive consonants may be:
plosive (stops) (взрывные) and affricates (аффрикаты).
In the production of plosive consonants the speech organs form a complete obstruction which is quickly released with plosion: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], g].
In the production of the affricates the speech organs form a complete obstruction which is then released so slowly that friction occurs at the point of articulation: [t∫], [dʒ].
In the production of occlusive sonorants the speech organs form a complete obstruction in the mouth cavity which is not released, the soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nasal cavity: [m], [n], [η].
B) Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete obstruction that is by a narrowing of the air-passage.
Constrictive consonants may be:

• noise (fricatives) (фрикативные)
• sonorants.

3.1. In the production of noise constrictive consonants the speech organs form an incomplete obstruction: [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [h], [∫], [ʒ].
In the production of constrictive sonorants the air-passage is wide, so that the air passing through the mouth doesn't produce audible friction (слышимый шум) but tone prevails over noise.
Constrictive sonorants may be:
a) median (срединный)          b) lateral  (боковой).
In the production of median sonorants the air passes without audible friction over central part of the tongue. The sides of the tongue are raised: [w, r, j].
In the production of lateral sonorants the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge or the teeth. The sides of the tongue are lowered and the air passes along them: [l].
3.1. According to the force of articulation consonants are divided into fortis and lenis.
English voiced consonants are lenis: [b],[d],[g],[dʒ],[v],[ð],[z],[ʒ],[m],[n],[ŋ],[w],[l],[r],[j].
English voiceless consonants are fortis:[p],[t],[k],[t∫],[f],[θ],[s],[∫],[h].
They are pronounced with a stronger breath force.
4.1. According to the position of the soft palate consonants are divided into oral and nasal:
Nasal consonants are produced with the soft palate lowered while the air-passage through the mouth is blocked. As a result the air passes through the nasal cavity: [m], [n], [ŋ].
Oral consonants are produced when the sort palate is raised and the air passes through the mouth: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [h], [t∫], [dʒ], [w], [l], [r], [j].